Previous IEA Studies

The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) has already carried out two international surveys of student characteristics in the domain of civic education. The first such study (Torney, Oppenheim, & Farnen, 1975) was conducted as part of the so-called Six Subject Study, with data collected in 1971 (for a summary, see Walker, 1976). The second study, the IEA Civic Education Study (CIVED), was carried out in 1999. It was designed to strengthen the empirical foundations of civic education by providing up-to-date information about the civic knowledge, attitudes, and actions of 14-year-olds.

CIVED had a twin focus on school-based learning and on opportunities for civic participation outside the school. CIVED concentrated on three civic-related domains: democracy/citizenship; national identity/international relations; and social cohesion/diversity. It was argued that the research outcomes from a study focusing on these domains would be particularly useful to policy-makers involved in designing or redesigning curricula and in preparing teachers.

CIVED was successful in meeting its aims and objectives. Phase 1 produced a detailed series of national case studies from the 24 participating countries (Tourney-Purta, Schwille, & Amadeo, 1999). Phase 2 produced two data-rich international reports, the first on the results from mandatory standard population of 14-year-olds in 28 participating countries (Torney-Purta, Lehmann, Oswald, & Schulz, 2001), and the second from the 16 countries that surveyed an older, optional population of 16- to 18-year-olds (Amadeo, Torney-Purta, Lehmann, Husfeldt, & Nikolova, 2002). Its findings have had a considerable influence on policy and educational practice in civic and citizenship education across the world, in both participating and non-participating countries, and have also influenced further research in this area (Kerr, Ireland, Lopes, Craig, & Cleaver, 2004; Mellor & Prior, 2004; Menezes, Ferreira, Carneiro, & Cruz, 2004).

Recent Changes in the World Context of Civics and Citizenship

In the 10 years since CIVED investigated civic education, the conditions relevant to civics and citizenship (especially governance and among-nation relations) have undergone considerable change across the globe. The world context and thus the context in relation to both citizenship and policy and practice in civic and citizenship education have changed.

The catalyst of major political change that swept across the world in the late 1980s and 1990s, and which triggered CIVED, has developed further:

1. The last decade has seen a significant change in external threats to civil societies. Terrorist attacks and the ensuing debates about the response civil societies should take have resulted in greater importance being attached to civic and citizenship education. This shift has been accompanied by a growing recognition of the role that civic and citizenship education can play in response to these changes.

2. Observation in many developing countries, and particularly those countries in the Latin American region, indicates that people are giving greater value to democracy as a system of government than they did in the past, but that increasing social and economic inequalities are simultaneously threatening the continuation of democratic government. Studies have highlighted the consensus in many developing countries of the importance of strengthening and promoting citizenship education among both young people and adults in order to make democracy more sustainable.

3. There has been a notable increase in the importance of non-governmental groups from civil society serving as alternative vehicles through which active citizenship can unite citizens with common purpose. New forms of social movement participation are due to a variety of different purposes, ranging from religious motivation to issues like protection of human rights or protection of the environment.

4. The trend towards more profound cultural changes due to the modernization and globalization of societies, more universal access to new media such as internet, increasing consumer consumption, and transformation of societal structures (individualism) has continued since 1999.

Consequently, interest in civic and citizenship education remains, or has become, high in many countries, especially in those with democratic forms of government, but also in those where the establishment of democracy has yet to be achieved.

Linked to these changes is a change in views with regard to the appropriateness of traditional views of citizenship. This development has led to a revisiting of concepts and practices associated with the four dimensions of citizenship: rights and responsibilities, access, belonging, and other identities (Banks, 2004; Kymlicka, 2001; Macedo, 2000). Concepts of national identity, how national identity can be identified, and what might be done to confirm national identity are being debated.

Low participation in governance and social dialectic by voters, or populations, is of particular relevance in many countries, and concerns are growing about the lack of interest and involvement of young people and young adults in public and political life (Curtice & Seyd, 2003; Putnam, 2000). However, while young people may reject political practices, the same does not necessarily occur with their endorsement of political values like solidarity, equity, and tolerance. There is also evidence that young people are becoming increasingly involved in alternative forms of participation.

Developments in the Research of Civic and Citizenship Education

Because of these developments, experts and education policy-makers in many countries are reflecting on the meaning of citizenship, resulting in an increased focus on civic and citizenship education in schools. There has been an increase in the number of countries and regions interested and involved in progressing civic and citizenship education. Such countries have become more proactive, and research in recent years has provided insights into:

1. The gap between the intended and the implemented curriculum (Birzea et al., 2004; EURYDICE, 2005)

2. The conceptualization of citizenship in schools with respect to curriculum, school culture, and the wider community (Kerr et al., 2004);

3. Approaches to civic and citizenship education, with an emphasis on active and experiential teaching and learning (Potter, 2002); and

4. Those factors that support effective citizenship education (Craig, Kerr, Wade, & Taylor, 2005).

This growing policy and evidence base has helped facilitate increased collaboration and sharing of expertise within and across countries and regions. Generally, the environment for civic and citizenship education has changed considerably since the late 1980s with respect to the scale and complexity of the challenges facing democracy and citizenship. There is a need to update the empirical evidence of this new environment in civic and citizenship education.

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