 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
Links - Papers and Articles - Culture and Assessment
- Assessment from the Chinese Perspective
- Culture
- Teaching the Chinese learner
- Others
Assessment from the Chinese Perspective
Socio-cultural value measured
Chan, J. (1996). Chinese intelligence. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 93-108). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
This chapter discusses the effects of historical background, education system, and family influence in the development of intelligence in Chinese individuals. The author also reviews the modern Western mental tests to Chinese communities previously conducted, the relationship among sex differences, and intellectual among Chinese is also examined. In the end, the author accounts for the major findings form cross-cultural research to give a better picture of Chinese intelligence when compared with that found in the west.
Parenting, learning and assessment
Chao, R. K. (1996). Chinese and European American mothers¡¦ beliefs about the role of parenting in children¡¦s school success. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 27 (4), 403-423. Printed
This paper reports a study that compares the parental beliefs between Chinese mothers and American European mother about their perspectives regarding the role of parenting in their children¡¦s school success.
Shek, D. T. L. (1999). Perceptions of family function among Chinese parents and their adolescent children. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27 (4), 303 ¡V 314. 
Achievement motivation of Chinese students
Chang, W. C., Wong, W. K., & Teo, G.. (2000). The socially oriented and individually oriented achievement motivation of Singaporean Chinese students. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 39-64.
Hong, Y. Y., & Salili, F. (2000). Challenges ahead for research on Chinese students¡¦ learning motivation in the new millennium. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 1-12.
Ng, C. H. (2000). A path analysis of self-schema, goal orientations, learning approaches and performance. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 93-122.
Tao, V., & Hong, Y. Y. (2000). A meaning system approach to Chinese students¡¦ achievement goals. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 13-38.
This paper presents some interesting patterns of achievement goals in Chinese culture. The authors argue that academic achievement is largely an individual endeavor in American culture, but a social endeavor in Chinese culture. Acquiring new skills and demonstrating what has been learnt might be mutually reinforcing goals that lead to meeting social expectations for Chinese students.
Yan, L. W. F., Liddle, M., & Csete, J. M. (2000). Influence on the group work process of Chinese students: Lessons learnt form a skill-based course in Hong Kong. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 65-92.
Yu, A. B. (1996). Ultimate life concerns, self and Chinese achievement motivation. In Bond, M. H. (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 227-246). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
The author criticizes the traditional western achievement motivation theory with the support of past research studies. The author defines Chinese motivation as social-oriented achievement motivation (SOAM), which contrasts with the individual-oriented achievement motivation (IOAM) ¡V the theory previously held by many western researchers.
Zhang, L. F. (2000). Abilities, academic performance, learning approaches and thinking styles: A three-culture investigation. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 123-150.
Assessment coping strategy of Chinese students
Tang, C., & Biggs, J. (1996). How Hong Kong students cope with assessment. In Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 159-182). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
This article reviews the previous studies on the effects of assessment on the learning of Hong Kong students. The authors identify several phenomena of teaching and learning under the ¡¥backwash¡¦ effect of the examination system.
Bodas, J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). Test Anxiety: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8 (1), 65-88.
Carter, J. A., Lees, J. A., & Murira, G. M. et al. (2005). Issues in the development of cross?cultural assessments of speech and language for children. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 40 (4), 385-401.
This paper reviews the literature on cross-cultural assessment in order to identify the major issues in the development and adaptation of speech and language assessments for children and to illustrate these issues with practical example with the authors¡¦ research program in Kenya.The authors argue that the awareness of cultural variation and bias, and cooperative efforts to develop and administer culturally appropriate assessment tools are the foundation of effective, valid treatment programs.
Cushner, K. (1990). Cross-cultural psychology and the formal classroom. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross-cultural psychology (pp. 98-120). London: Sage Publications.
Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (1998a). Comparative educational administration: Developing a cross-cultural conceptual framework. Educational Administration Quarterly, 34 (4), 558-595.
Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (1998b). Towards comparative educational administration: building the case for a cross-cultural school-based approach. Journal of Educational Administration, 36 (4), 379-401.
Lonner, W. J. (1990). An overview of cross-cultural testing and assessment. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross-cultural psychology (pp. 56-76). London: Sage Publications.
Thomas, E. (2000). Culture and schooling: Bridges between research, praxis and professionalism. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. : chapter 4-5
(Chapter 4) This chapter discusses the relation between learning and cultural context from the perspective of educational assessment.
Biggs, J. (1996). Western misperceptions of the Confucian-heritage
learning culture. In Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese
learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 45-67).
Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
Bond, M. H. (1991). Beyond the Chinese face: Insights from psychology. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Bond, M. H. (1996). Chinese values. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 208-226). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Bond, M. H., & Hwang, K. K. (1986). The social psychology of Chinese people. In M. H. Bond, The psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 213-266). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (1998a). Towards comparative educational
administration: building the case for a cross-cultural school-based
approach. Journal of Educational Administration, 36 (4), 379-401.
Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (1998b). Comparative educational
administration: Developing a cross-cultural conceptual framework. Educational Administration Quarterly, 34 (4), 558-595.
Gow, L., Balla, J., Kember, D., & Hau, K. T. (1996). The learning
approaches of Chinese people: A function of socialization – Processes
and the context of learning? In Bond, M. H. (Ed.), The handbook of
Chinese psychology (pp. 109-123). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Ho, D. Y. F. (1986). Chinese patterns of socialization: A critical review. In M. H. Bond, The psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 1-37). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Ho, I. T. (2004). A comparison of Australian and Chinese teachers'
attributions for student problem behaviors. Educational Psychology, 24 (3), 375 – 391.
Huo, Y. P., & Clinow, M. (1995). On transplanting human resource
practices to China: A culture driven approach. International Journal
of Manpower, 16 (9), 3-15.
Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners:
Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In Watkins, D., &
Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and
contextual influences (pp. 25-41). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
Luk, B. H. K. (1991). Chinese culture in the Hong Kong curriculum:
Heritage and colonialism. Comparative Education Review, 35 (4), 650-668.
Salili, F. (1996). Accepting personal responsibility for learning. In
Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural,
psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 85-105). Hong Kong: CERC &
ACER.
Stevenson, H. W., & Lee, S. Y. (1996). The academic achievement of
Chinese students. In Bond, M. H. (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese
psychology (pp. 124-142). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Tang, C., & Biggs, J. (1996). How Hong Kong students cope with
assessment. In Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese learner:
Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 159-182). Hong
Kong: CERC & ACER.
Tang, C. (1996). Collaborative learning: The latent dimension in Chinese
students’ learning. In Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese
learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp.
183-204). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
Thomas, E. (2000). Culture and schooling: Bridges between research,
praxis and professionalism. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (Chapter 4-5)
Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (2000). One size fits all? Teacher appraisal
in a Chinese culture. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in
Education, 14 (2), 155-178.
Watkins, D. (1996). Hong Kong secondary school learners: A developmental
perspective. In Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese learner:
Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp.107-119). Hong
Kong: CERC & ACER.
Yu, A. B. (1996). Ultimate life concerns, self and Chinese achievement
motivation. In Bond, M. H. (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology
(pp. 227-246). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Gallego, M.A., Cole, M., & Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (2001).? Classroom cultures and cultures in the classroom.? In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (4th ed.) (pp.951-997). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
This paper carefully exams the concepts of ¡¥classroom¡¦, ¡¥culture¡¦ and ¡¥context¡¦. Literature review is conducted to provide a general picture of different approaches in explaining classroom culture and the related issues.
Kroeber, A. L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1963). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. New York: Vintage Books.
Rogoff, B. (1990). The cultural context of cognitive activity. In B. Rogoff, Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context (pp. 42-61). New York: Oxford University Press.
The chapter argues that cognitive activities occur in socially structured situations that involve values about the interpretation and management of social relationships. Individuals¡¦ attempts to solve problems are intrinsically related to social and societal values and goals, tools, and institutions in the definition of the problems and the practice of their solution.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. London: Harvard University Press.
Bodas, J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). Test Anxiety: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8 (1), 65-88.
Bond, M. H. (1996). Chinese values. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 208-226). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., Sharpe, K., & Planel, C. (2001). Pupil assessment and classroom culture: A comparative study of the language of assessment in England and France. In D. Scott (Ed.), Curriculum and assessment (pp. 41-61). London: Ablex Publishing.
This article highlights some of the differences between English and French primary teachers¡¦ professional priorities and practices. The authors adopt the cultural approach to explain the differences highlighted. They argue that any attempt to understand the way in which a particular assessment practice is likely to help or hinder learning must study it in the context of the more general cultural setting in which the interaction between teacher and pupil is taking place.
Carter, J. A., Lees, J. A., & Murira, G. M. et al. (2005). Issues in the development of cross?cultural assessments of speech and language for children. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 40 (4), 385-401.
Dahlin, B., Watkins, D. A., & Ekholm, M. (2001). The role of assessment in student learning: The views of Hong Kong and Swedish lecturers. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp.47-74). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
This is a research on the relationship between teachers¡¦ and students¡¦ conceptions of the fundamental elements constituting academic studies in the Hong Kong and Sweden cultures. The authors attempt to find a distinctive variation of conceptions mentioned above across culture.
Davison, C. (2004). The contradictory culture of teacher-based assessment: ESL teacher assessment practices in Australian and Hong Kong secondary schools. Language Testing, 21 (3), 305-334.
This article adopts a socio-cultural approach to report on the background and finds of a comparative study of ESL teachers¡¦ assessment of written argument in the final years of secondary school in Australia and Hong Kong. The article concludes that traditional notions of validity may need to be reconceptualized in high-stakes teacher-based assessment, with professional judgment, interaction and trust given much higher priority in the assessment process.
Fuller, B., & Clarke, P. (1994). Raising school effects while ignoring culture? Local conditions and the influence of classroom tools, rules and pedagogy. Review of Educational Research, 64 (1), 119-157.
This article reviews how the two paths of school-effects research, namely: policy mechanics and classroom culturalists are informed by work conducted within developing countries.
Gipps, C. (1999). Socio-cultural aspects of assessment. In A. Iran-Nejad & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Review of research in education (pp. 355-392). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
This chapter reviews assessment from a socio-cultural perspective. The chapter has two major themes, namely: Power and Control, and Interpretivist Paradigm. The whole chapter is organized into four sections: First, the purposes served and the roles that assessment has played in the society from past to present; Second, developments in the conceptualization of forms of assessment over the last 20 years. The author seeks to explain these changes as being underpinned by changes in epistemology and views of learning; Third, the assessment in the social world of the classroom; Finally, the future directions of assessment.
Greenfield, P. M. (1997). You can¡¦t take it with you: Why ability assessments don¡¦t cross cultures. American Psychologist, 52 (10), 1115-1124.
This article argues that tests of intelligence and cognitive ability are cultural genres ¡V which are based on social conventions presupposed or assumed by a test and its tester. Successful functioning of a test requires the sharing of these conventions.
Miller-Jones, D. (1989). Culture and testing. American Psychologist, 44 (2), 360-366
This article consists of two main arguments: First, skills are acquired in specific learning activity contexts and therefore tests of generalized cognitive functioning will inevitably provide a less than portrayal of individuals¡¦ capacities; Second, appropriate assessment requires an understanding of the constraints that govern access to a person¡¦s knowledge and regulate the deployment of concepts and reasoning process.
Pilcher, J. K. (1994). The Value-Driven Meaning of Grades. Educational Assessment, 2 (1), 69-88.
This paper presents the use of a multiple case study approach to investigating the way grades were assigned by teachers and used by students and parents. The author argues that interpretation and use of a grade is driven by the value students, parents and teachers attach to grades.
Pryor, J., & Torrance, H. (2000). Questioning the three bears: The social construction of classroom assessment. In A. Filer (Ed.), Assessment: Social practice and social product (pp. 110-128). London & New York: Routledge Falmer.
This chapter focuses on the way that teacher-pupil interaction in the context of assessment generates learners¡¦ knowledge and classroom identities in the here and now. The author argues, by drawing a case study of a mathematic lesson, that classroom assessment itself constitutes a context of learning which in turn both produces and is produced by the understandings that pupils bring to their schooling and the transformations that thereby occur.
Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment in a learning culture. Education Researcher, 29 (7), 4-14.
This article is organized into three parts. The first part presents the historical framework highlighting the key doctrines of social efficiency curricula, behaviorist learning theories, and ¡¥scientific measurement. The second part outlines a contrasting social constructivist framework that blends key ideas from cognitive, contructivist and socio-cultural theories. The final part elaborates on the ways that assessment practices should change to consistent with and support social-constructivist pedagogy.
Silver, I. W., & Waite, S. V. (1969). Test anxiety and the effectiveness of social and nonsocial reinforcement in children. Children Development, 40, 307-314.
Stewart, M. S., Bond, M. H., Deeds, O., Westrick, J., & Wong, C. M. (1999). Predictors of high school achievement in a Hong Kong international school. International Journal of Psychology, 34 (3), 163-174.
Sy, S. R., & Huntsinger, C. S. (2003). Formal instruction and kindergarten achievement in China and the United States. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 4 (2), 247-267.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. London: Harvard University Press.
Chang, W. C., Wong, W. K., & Teo, G.. (2000). The socially oriented and individually oriented achievement motivation of Singaporean Chinese students. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 39-64.
Hong, Y. Y., & Salili, F. (2000). Challenges ahead for research on Chinese students¡¦ learning motivation in the new millennium. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 1-12.
Ng, C. H. (2000). A path analysis of self-schema, goal orientations, learning approaches and performance. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 93-122.
Tao, V., & Hong, Y. Y. (2000). A meaning system approach to Chinese students¡¦ achievement goals. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 13-38.
Yan, L. W. F., Liddle, M., & Csete, J. M. (2000). Influence on the group work process of Chinese students: Lessons learnt form a skill-based course in Hong Kong. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 65-92.
Zhang, L. F. (2000). Abilities, academic performance, learning approaches and thinking styles: A three-culture
investigation. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1 (2), 123-150.
Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., Sharpe, K., & Planel, C. (2001). Pupil assessment and classroom culture: A comparative study of the language of assessment in England and France. In D. Scott (Ed.), Curriculum and assessment (pp. 41-61). London: Ablex Publishing.
Elwood, J. (2001). Examination techniques: Issues of validity and effects on pupils¡¦ performance. In D. Scott (Ed.), Curriculum and assessment (pp. 81-103). London: Ablex Publishing.
Harlen, W. (2001). Scottish perspectives on the curriculum and assessment. In D. Scott (Ed.), Curriculum and assessment (pp. 119-141). London: Ablex Publishing.
Nitko, A. J. (2001). Conceptual frameworks to accommodate the validation of rapidly changing requirements for assessments. In D. Scott (Ed.), Curriculum and assessment (pp. 143-163). London: Ablex Publishing.
Wiliam, D. (2001). An overview of the relationship between assessment and the curriculum. In D. Scott (Ed.), Curriculum and assessment (pp. 165-181). London: Ablex Publishing.
Biggs, J. (1996). Western misperceptions of the Confucian-heritage learning culture. In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 45-67). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
This paper reviews the concepts defining a good learning environment. The authors point out the common Western misperceptions about the ¡¥low quality¡¦ of Confucian heritage culture (CHC) learning ¡V which previous western studies mistaken repetitive learning (kind of deep learning strategy) for rote learning. Also, there exist gaps between western and CHC views about source of learning motivation and attributions for success and failure etc. In the end, the authors try to redefine a ¡¥good learning environment¡¦ with the support of the 3p model (presage-process-product model).
Biggs, J. (1998). Learning from the Confucian heritage: So size doesn¡¦t matter? International Journal of Educational Research, 29, 723-738.
This paper tries to explain the paradox that students from Confucian heritage cultures (CHC), who are perceived by western researchers as learning under an ¡¥ineffective¡¦ learning environment, consistently outperform Western students in many academic subjects.
Gow, L., Balla, J., Kember, D., & Hau, K. T. (1996). The learning approaches of Chinese people: A function of socialization ¡V Processes and the context of learning? In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 109-123). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Dahlin, B., Watkins, D. A., & Ekholm, M. (2001). The role of assessment in student learning: The views of Hong Kong and Swedish lecturers. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp.47-74). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 25-41). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
Salili, F. (1996). Accepting personal responsibility for learning. In Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 85-105). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
This chapter reviews the relevant literature on determinants of achievement among Chinese.
Stevenson, H. W., & Lee, S. Y. (1996). The academic achievement of Chinese students. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 124-142). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Stewart, M. S., Bond, M. H., Deeds, O., Westrick, J., & Wong, C. M. (1999). Predictors of high school achievement in a Hong Kong international school. International Journal of Psychology, 34 (3), 163-174. ?
Sy, S. R., & Huntsinger, C. S. (2003). Formal instruction and kindergarten achievement in China and the United States. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 4 (2), 247-267.
Tang, C. (1996). Collaborative learning: The latent dimension in Chinese students¡¦ learning. In Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 183-204). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
Watkins, D. (1996). Hong Kong secondary school learners: A developmental perspective. In Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp.107-119). Hong Kong: CERC & ACER.
Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (2001). The paradox of the Chinese learner and beyond. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp.3-23). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Biggs, J. B., & Watkins, D. A. (2001). Insights into teaching the Chinese learner. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp.277-300). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Chan, C. K. K. (2001). Promoting learning and understanding through constructivist approaches for Chinese learners. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 181-203). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Cortazzi, M., & Lixian, J. (2001). Large classes in China: ¡¥Good¡¦ teachers and interaction. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp.115-134). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Ho, I. T. (2001). Are Chinese teachers authoritarian. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 99-114). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Mok, I., Chik, P. M., & Ko, P. Y. et al. (2001). Solving the paradox of the Chinese teacher? In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp.161-179). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Salili, F. (2001). Teacher-student interaction: Attributional implications and effectiveness of teachers¡¦ evaluative feedback. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp.77-98). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Cheng, R. H. M. (2004). Moral education in Hong Kong: Confucian-parental, Christian-religious and liberal-civic influence. Journal of Moral Education, 33 (4), 533-551.
Ho, I. T. (2004). A comparison of Australian and Chinese teachers' attributions for student problem behaviors. Educational Psychology, 24 (3), 375 ¡V 391.
Huo, Y. P., & Clinow, M. (1995). On transplanting human resource practices to China: A culture driven approach. International Journal of Manpower, 16 (9), 3-15.
Kwok, P. (2004). Examination-Oriented knowledge and value transformation in East Asian cram schools. Asia Pacific Education Review, 5 (1), 64-75.
Neville, M. (1995). School culture and effectiveness in an Asian pluralistic society. International Studies in Educational Administration, 23 (2), 28-37.
Home | Purposes | Background | Research Plan | Team | Schools | Works | Links