Teaching physics in Vietnam: Integrating constructivist and sociocultural learning principles with ICT

ICT is defined by UNESCO as forms of technology used for creating, displaying, storing, manipulating and exchanging information (Meleisea, 2007). This broad definition includes all forms of ICT. ICT today is commonly thought of as relating to electronic and digital forms of technology such as computers, networks, email, internet, telephone, television, radio, and so on. The relationship between learning and ICT is presented in a theoretical framework named the Pedagogic Model of Integrating Constructivist and Sociocultural Learning Principles with ICT (the CSI model – see Figure 1). In this model learning is located in the centre. In general, the nature of learning can be explained by sociocultural and cognitive constructivist points of view: learning occurs in social contexts (sociocultural theories) and entails individual creation and organisation of knowledge (cognitive constructivism).

A sociocultural learning principle: Learning occurs in social contexts

According to the sociocultural view learning occurs in social contexts. This principle relates to the meaning of learning identified by Salomon and Perkins (1998): social mediation as participatory knowledge construction. It is also based on the notions of distribution of cognition and situated learning

Cognition (that is, intelligence or knowledge) is distributed across social systems among people, learners, cultures, artefacts, environments and situations (Pea, 1997; Salomon & Perkins, 1996; Salomon & Perkins, 1998). It is argued that cognition is accomplished rather than possessed by individuals participating in learning activities (Pea, 1997; Salomon & Perkins, 1998), and “learning is participation in social practice” (Greeno, 1997, p. 9). In other words, cognition or intelligence is achieved by participating in social activities.

According to Pea (1997), the distribution of cognition has two dimensions: social and material. The social distribution of cognition relates to the cognition constructed by participating in organised social activities such as working in groups to accomplish shared goals. In this outlook learners acquire knowledge and skill when they participate in social practices (Cobb & Bowers, 1999; Greeno, 1997; Salomon & Perkins, 1998). Therefore, “discussion of alternative arrangements for learning needs to include consideration of the values of having students learn to participate in the practices of learning that those arrangements afford” (Greeno, 1997, p. 10). The material distribution of cognition concerns the cognition constructed by utilising artefacts to accomplish activity goals. Thus, when designing learning tasks for students, sociocultural educators are concerned with designing activities that give students opportunities to participate and work in groups. The students interact and collaborate with each other when they conduct the learning task, and co-construct their knowledge and skills.

Fig. 1 The CSI model

Reinforcing the view that learning is facilitated by participating in social practices (Cobb & Bowers, 1999; Lave & Wenger, 1991) is the idea that “knowledge is situated, being in part a product of activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used” (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989, p. 32). Besides the notion that learning is situated in contexts and activities, cultural views also emphasise interactive activity systems in which learners interact with other people (for example, learners, teachers and tutors), as well as artefacts (for example, tools, ICT and learning resources) (Cobb & Bowers, 1999; Cole & Wertsch, 1996; Greeno, 1997).

ICT facilitates learning in social contexts

Learning is facilitated by mediational tools, such as signs, diagrams, virtual reality, language, experimental equipment, technical tools and technology (Daniels, 2008), which enhance learning processes. They may direct thinking and shape actions. Mediational tools will stimulate learners to construct their own knowledge in a social context if teachers use the tools effectively.

ICT as an artefact may promote interaction and facilitate the co-construction of knowledge in social contexts. It is considered that interaction in this model contains interactions between students and teachers, students and other students, and students and learning materials and learning tasks.

Flexible learning environments are commonly thought of in the context of distance learning, yet flexible learning relates to many different choices for students, such as time, place, topics and learning materials. The place where learners contact teachers and other learners is just one dimension of flexibility.

Collis and Moonen (2001) state that flexible learning involves a variety of options for learners in the learning environment. ICT is used to diversify options for students in terms of learning resources, instructional organisation of learning and communication. In addition, ICT is applied to support learners’ choices of social organisations of learning and languages.

Learners are provided with a wide range of learning resources, including traditional resources (for example, textbooks and library resources) and ICT resources (for example, educational software, apps, games, videos and virtual reality). Students can be provided with opportunities to access unlimited online resources created by scientists, experts, lecturers, peers and communities. These resources are rich as well as variable in format (for example, texts, photos, diagrams, animations, 3D, augmented reality, audios, videos and virtual reality). Students have opportunities to interact with the learning resources and exploit these ICT artefacts to engage in meaningful learning activities and co-construct knowledge (Pea, 1997; Salomon & Perkins, 1998).

The instructional organisation of learning becomes more flexible when face-to-face interactions, course management systems and computer-based testing systems are integrated by providing learners with many alternatives for submitting assignments and interacting within a course. Software and technology tools are implemented in face-to-face classes. This integration allows learners to decide the pace of study, and choose the instructional mode of learning (for example, face-to-face and online) and the time and place to contact teachers and other learners (for example, in classes at fixed times or off campus during weekdays). Moreover, the application of ICT gives students choices in terms of methods and technology for obtaining support and making contact. The communication can be synchronous or asynchronous. This flexibility provides opportunities for teachers and students to promote discussion and interaction (Jonassen, Carr, & Yueh, 1995), and thus a supporting environment for collective learning (Thomas & Brown, 2011).

Students’ knowledge is constructed when they achieve shared goals. Students learn by participating in interactive social systems in which individuals interact with each other and artefacts, including learning resources designed by teachers and others (Greeno, 1997; Salomon & Perkins, 1996). The flexibilities of ICT in terms of communication, instructional organisation, time, place and social organisation of learning can help to promote interaction and discussion within the interactive social systems, therefore enhancing students’ learning.

Constructivist learning principles

Learning consists of two aspects: individual and social. The nature of learning from the individual perspective can be explained by cognitive constructivism. From a cognitive constructivist perspective, learners create and self-organise their own knowledge in order to learn (Fosnot & Perry, 2005; Von Glasersfeld, 1989). This principle concerns the human internal process of constructing knowledge. Learning generally begins by observing or experiencing, and continues by making meaning and relating current experiences to cognitive systems that learners have previously developed. Learners then integrate or differentiate the new knowledge, and thus a new balance in their cognitive system is formed. Teachers can facilitate student learning by offering them as many opportunities to observe and experience as possible in a learning context (Watts & Pope, 1989). Teaching should consider learners’ prior knowledge (Driver & Oldham, 1986; Ozkal, Tekkaya, Cakiroglu, & Sungur, 2009). Teachers need to provide appropriate help so that learners can relate new information to prior cognitive systems, then make the change and enrich their understanding.

ICT is a tool to support individual learning

From the cognitive constructivist point of view, ICT is a tool for learners to individually construct knowledge. Learning from the cognitive constructivist perspective is a process of self-organising knowledge. In this process, learners experience, assimilate, accommodate and then gain a new equilibrium of cognition. ICT offers rich learning material and resources that can help learners to observe and make sense of new phenomena and experiences in a supportive environment.

Jonassen, Carr, and Yueh (1998) point out how ICT tools such as search engines, hypermedia and visualisation tools can assist learners to construct their knowledge. They argue that with the huge volume and escalation of information, it is necessary for learners to have a tool that supports them to access and process information. Search engines can help learners to access and locate the information sources (websites) that are appropriate for their needs. Websites in general present information in many forms, including text and visual formats (for example, photos, diagrams, and videos). Jonassen et al. (1998) note that learners internalise more information through their visual modality than other sensory modalities. Therefore visual tools, such as colours, photos and videos, assist learners to construct their own knowledge.

Furthermore, information in websites can be organised in linear or hypermedia structures. The link structure enables information to be organised in structured forms that show meaningful relationships between/among groups of information. Through these links learners can navigate the information resources, learn the organisation of the information sources and organise/reorganise their own knowledge. Many hypermedia websites allow learners to add and modify the content and links in the websites. By modifying and creating hypermedia websites and content, learners reflect their understanding of the knowledge and the organisation of the knowledge.

In the context of constructivist learning principles, ICT can also provide students with opportunities to construct their knowledge in symbolic forms (for example, words, diagrams and photos) and organise the knowledge in structured systems (for example, mind maps, structured folders and databases) (Salomon, 1998). Jonassen et al. (1998) hold that ICT visualisation tools assist learners to reason visually and convey their mental images. For instance, software that is used to draw mind maps (for example, MINDMAP, SmartDraw and FreeMind) can be an effective tool for students to organise ideas and refine the organisation of the ideas.